Romantic Period of Literature in America Essay - 949 Words

Beginning early in the 17th century, American authors and poets alike began the great shift in writing now known as the romantic period. This movement in literature has many influences, themes, and writing styles that can be highlighted with important works and authors. A promising frontier, new cultures brought by immigration, and a search for spiritual answers were all key influences in bringing about the romantic movement. Themes of the romantic period include nature as a refuge, high imagination, and emotional intensity. All of these influences and themes culminate in many different forms of literature including poem, short story, and essay. A drastic shift from the Puritan and Quaker writings of the colonial period in American†¦show more content†¦One of the largest and most popular themes in the romantic period was nature and its magnificence. Authors and dreamers loved the idea of delving into nature, getting lost in God’s creation, and emerging a changed person. â€Å"Nature,† a philosophic piece by Ralph Waldo Emerson, turns a purely academic essay into a romantic account of nature and her wonders. Emerson writes that â€Å"the sun illuminates only the eye of the man, but shines into the eye and the heart of the child,† and that â€Å"nature never wears a mean appearance,† suggesting that the grown man has much to fear and learn from nature. Emerson concludes by saying he is a â€Å"lover of uncontained and immortal beauty,† perfectly summarizing the view many romantic authors held. The romantic period of literature saw an enormous spike in the amount of imaginative writing, as exemplified by Washington Irving’s romantic-inspired story, â€Å"The Devil and Tom Walker.† In his satire, Irving includes many creative components. The author first sets a beautiful scene with descriptive writing and imagery, then brings in humorous components as the protagonists are revealed to be even greed ier than the devil himself. Such writing would not have been put to paper in the colonial period. Another important theme was emotional intensity, suggested by the name â€Å"romantic period† itself. â€Å"The Pit and the Pendulum† by Edgar Allen Poe is fullShow MoreRelatedRomanticism s Impact On America Essay1374 Words   |  6 PagesImpact on America The period of Romanticism, occurring between the years 1800 and 1860, left a significant impact on not only the literature of that time, but the literature of today as well. Prior to romantic writings, the world focused on society and logic. Romanticism allowed people to start valuing individualism and to appeal to emotional responses. This new way of thinking brought new literary styles, themes, and genres that were never explored before and are still found today. The literature of RomanticismRead MoreRomanticism s Impact On America Essay1376 Words   |  6 Pageson America The period of Romanticism, occurring between the years 1800 and 1860, left a significant impact on not only the literature of that time, but the literature of today as well. Prior to romantic writings, the world focused on society and logic. Romanticism allowed people to start valuing individualism and to appeal to emotional responses. This new way of thinking brought new literary styles, themes, and genres that were never explored before and are still found today. The literature of RomanticismRead MoreRomanticism : The Age Of Reason1210 Words   |  5 Pagesfine arts and literature that focuses on passion imagination and intuition rather than emphasizing on reason and logic. There are no restraints or order in Romanticism; complete spontaneous actions are welcome in this style of writing. Romanticism, or also known as the â€Å"The Romantic Period†, refers to the cultural movements that occurred in England, Europe, and America from 1770 to the 1860s. In this literary period, romantic writers saw themselves revolting against another period called the â€Å"AgeRead MoreThe New American Literature : The Period Of Romanticism Essay1265 Words   |  6 PagesThe New American Literature The period of Romanticism, occurring between the years 1800 and 1860, left a significant impact on not only the literature of that time, but the literature of today as well. Prior to romantic writings, the world focused on society and logic. Romanticism allowed people to start valuing individualism and to appeal to emotional responses. This new way of thinking brought new literary styles, themes, and genres that were never explored before and are still found today. TheRead MoreThere have been many movements in Romantic Literature, Romanticism being one. Despite the idea that600 Words   |  3 Pagesbeen many movements in Romantic Literature, Romanticism being one. Despite the idea that romanticism is an outdated literary form, romantic literature is very important to English Literature; no other period in English Literature shows the type of style, theme, or contain information like how the Romantic movement was. Romanticism was virtually around in every country of the US, Europe, L atin America and it lasted from 1750-1870. Romanticism gave a rise to a new type of literature it was an exerciseRead MoreThe Fire Side Poets from the Romantic Period of Literature Appreciate Nature586 Words   |  3 PagesThe Romantic period in American Literature dates from 1800-1860. It was a time where people were trying to find a distinctive voice. The Romantic period included letters, poems, essays, books, and art. Most of the authors focused on feelings, which is why its called the â€Å"Romantic† period. The authors can be put into four different groups, The fire side poets, The Transcendentalist, American Gothic, and The Early Romantics. The fire side authors had an appreciation for nature. Poems were readRead More Ages of Faith, Reason, and Romantics Essay880 Words   |  4 Pages Reason, and Romantics Works Cited Missing The first three time periods in American literature had distinguishing characteristics in their subject matter and writing styles. Puritans wrote about their religious beliefs and daily life during the Age of Faith. During the Age of Reason, the Revolutionary War was going on and much of the writings were political documents as a result of the war. The Age of Romantics brought about the first fictional writings. The three time periods, which have uniqueRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne960 Words   |  4 Pagesthread that runs through this novel is Hawthorne’s apparent understanding of the beliefs and culture of the Puritans in America at that time. But Hawthorne is writing about events in a society that existed 200 years before he wrote his story. In this way, Hawthorne has possibly altered or romanticized a view of the life, beliefs and behavior of the Puritans who first settled in America (2, 3). We accept that authors will use their characters to express their beliefs, and in telling a story, the charactersRead MoreDefining Characteristics of the Medieval, Renaissance, Neoclassical, and Romantic Period 987 Words   |  4 PagesMedieval Period After the classical period the structure of society was a mess. After the trojan war the Medieval period was the one to bring in the more civilized society. Having a more civilized structure brought in new ideas and a more structured government. The base of the Medieval period was Italian scholars and academics on the base of academics was only making slow progress across the world. The most horrific event of the Medieval period would be the Dark Ages. In the article Dark Ages theRead MoreDark Romanticism1392 Words   |  6 PagesAccount for the rise of this kind of writing in America and evaluate its appeal and significance then and now. The Dark Side of Romanticism Romantic literary texts focus on the expression of emotion. Authors during the Romantic period developed and integrated the idea of the individual being the main focus in life. Romantic authors focused on the individual being at the center of their own happiness and destiny and evil dwelling outside mankind. Dark Romantics believed that evil is not only found in nature

Theory of Cognitive Development and Children - 1466 Words

Piaget s Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget was born on August9, 1896, in the French speaking part of Switzerland. At an early age he developed an interest in biology, and by the time he had graduated from high school he had already published a number of papers. After marrying in 1923, he had three children, whom he studied from infancy. Piaget is best known for organizing cognitive development into a series of stages- the levels of development corresponding too infancy, childhood, and adolescence. These four stages are labeled the Sensorimotor stage, which occurs from birth to age two, (children experience through their senses), the Preoporational stage, which occurs from ages two to six, (motor skills are†¦show more content†¦Young children seem to abide by the old saying, Out of sight, out of mind. In Piaget s view, for a child to be able to shift from using herself as the only frame of reference to seeing things from another perspective, the child must decenter, which may not occur until the child is about six years old. As a child enters the Concrete Operational stage, they will gain the skills that will allow them to think logically. As Meryl approaches age five, her cognitive skills are developing, and she is beginning to take into account the views of people other than herself. There has been recent research on examining how children understand the thought and feelings of others. There is a theoretical notion known as theory of mind, which means a set of ideas that explain other people s ideas, beliefs, desires, and behavior. (Bee and Boyd 159). Research indicates that adolescents and adults have a much more fully developed theory of mind than children do. Understanding the thoughts and feelings of others is a complicated matter, that continues to develop possibly over a lifetime. In my preschool classroom, there are often arguments over possessions. For example: Child A builds a tower with the wooden blocks. Child B walks over and takes the top block off of Child A s tower. Child A becomes upset saying, He tookShow MoreRelatedTheory of Cognitive Development and Children1854 Words   |  8 PagesDiscuss the concept of ‘constructivism’ (from Piaget’s theory of cognitive development). Use a mix of theory and research to back up your ideas about whether or not the child constructs his/her own development. The understanding of how children comprehend the world around them has been a highly researched part of cognitive development in Psychology. Jean Piaget was one of the first researchers to develop a theory suggesting that children understand the world around them by actively seeking informationRead MoreTheories on Human Learning and Cognitive Development in Young Children755 Words   |  4 PagesLearning is the keystone to American society. It has brought society trough times of economic darkness, religious revival and social instability. Learning has always been debated in the context of when does the learning start in human development, Is learning the result of nature taking its course as was argued by rationalist like Plato and Rene Descartes. According to (BeeBoyd, 2007) Rationalist view point on education is entrenched in the idea that ( â€Å"knowledge is inborn†). On the other end ofRead MoreChildren s Appearance Rigidity And Cognitive Theories Of Gender Development11 10 Words   |  5 PagesElizabeth Meyer PSYC 232 05 A. May Ling Halim and Diane N. Ruble, 2013, Pink Frilly Dresses and the Avoidance of all things ‘girly’: Children’s Appearance Rigidity and Cognitive Theories of Gender Development, Developmental Psychology Vol 50 (4) pp.1091-1101 B. I chose this article because I found it to be a subject I could relate to. Growing up with a sister a younger than me, and a brother a year younger than her I distinctly remember all of us going through stages of being extremely picky aboutRead MoreJean Piaget And Vygotsky s Theory On Children s Cognitive Development1507 Words   |  7 Pageshave shared their knowledge on children’s cognitive development. Both psychologists had their own vision of what stimulates and helps a child grow. Jean Piaget s theory was shaped through the thinking and understanding of how knowledge is built through a series of four stages; preoperational, sensorimotor, formal operational and concrete operational. He believed that the development was with the child themselves. On the contrary, Lev Vygotsky s theory is shaped through adult social interactionsRead MorePiaget s Stage Theory Account For Children s Cognitive Development1759 Words   |  8 Pageswell does Piaget’s stage theory acc ount for children’s cognitive development? Intro Piaget believed there were four stages in a child’s cognitive development and sub stages within these stages. These stages have been the object of debate since Piaget introduced them and are still continuously debated. All of the stages are very concrete and large scale. They don’t account for children at a particular age who are behind or ahead. Piaget underestimated the capability of children to do particular thingsRead MoreCompare and contrast Piaget‚Äà ´s and Vygotsky‚Äà ´s theories of cognitive development in children1274 Words   |  6 PagesVygotsky’s theories of cognitive development in children. This essay will compare Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive development in children. Also, show the differences between the two psychologist’s theories. Thus, by showing their similarities like in language and adaptation theories. Further, differences like Piaget’s theory on cognitive developmental stages and the schemas which are build to learn or accommodate new words or things. Vygostky’s theory differs to Piaget’s theory by hisRead MoreHow Does Piaget s Stage Theory Account For Children s Cognitive Development?1576 Words   |  7 PagesHow does Piaget’s stage theory account for children’s cognitive development? Jean Piaget (1896-1980) had a stage theory about cognitive development and how it works with children. There are 4 stages to this theory; sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. Piaget emphasised that they occur in this order. (Smith, Cowie, Blades, 2015, p. 446). He considered the fact that the way child’s mind develops, intellectually, is a continuous process of Assimilation and AccommodationRead MoreVygotsky s Theory And Development Of Higher Mental Functions898 Words   |  4 PagesIn Vygotsky’s theory, children have two basic kinds of functions or mental processes that Vygotsky entitled lower mental functions, and higher mental functions. Lower mental functions are defined as their natural way of learning or innate ways that one would respond to their environment. Higher mental functions are defined as a more complex way of thinking or processing. In Vygotsky’s view, the potential for acquiring lower mental functions is b iologically built in, but society and culture are criticalRead MorePiaget vs. Vygotsky1120 Words   |  5 PagesThe theory of cognitive development is defined as the development of the ability to think and reason. There are many theorists who have studied cognitive theories and the most famous is Jean Piaget. Cognitive development covers the physical and emotional stages of a child. The basic premise for cognitive development is to show the different stages of the development of a child so you can understand where the child might be in their development. Understanding cognitive development will betterRead MoreSocio Cultural Theory And Piaget s Cognitive Development Theory1493 Words   |  6 PagesThe two theorists that I have chosen to compare are Vygotsky for his work on the socio-cultural theory and Piaget’s Cognitive Development theory. The socio-cultural theory focuses on how norms, culture, beliefs and values are passed onto the next generation in a society (Berk, 2007). Piaget was the first psychologist to study cognitive development and described his work as genetic epistemology. He was concerned with how essential concepts such as the idea of time, numbers, justice etc. arose (Siegler

Microbiological routes for the production Free Essays

string(24) " forthing strains of P\." Microbiological Paths For The Production Of Pharmaceutical Products. Introduction Microbiological Aspects Of Penicillin Recent publications and primary literature suggest that penicillin is an first-class curative agent which increases its demand for clinical application and chemical surveies. Microbiological production, chemical purification and isolation are major jobs associated with its usage. We will write a custom essay sample on Microbiological routes for the production or any similar topic only for you Order Now Penicillin is produced by Penicillium notatum in really infinitesimal measures and its civilizations were investigated for big scale production of penicillin. Cultures of P.notatum tend to spontaneously lose their penicillin-producing ability due to physiological or biochemical devolution. Penicillin activity straight depends upon the nature of strain. It is critical to choose strains of highest authority for maximal penicillin activity. All the strains are different from each other in their penicillin-forming ability. 1. Penicillin production in Penicillium Chrysogenum. Biosynthesis of lysine and Penicillin in Penicillium chrysogenum is regulated by ramifying point intermediate ?-aminoadipate. In penicillin tract, it is condensed with L-valine and L-cysteine to organize tripeptide by ACV synthetase. The internal ?-aminoadipate pool plays a critical function in lysine and penicillin biogenesis. The break of lys2 cistron directs the pool towards penicillin biogenesis ensuing in penicillin over-production. The targeted break was carried out by utilizing two different techniques and their consequence on penicillin production was studied. P.chrysogenum Wis 54-1255 ( low-level penicillin-producing strain ) and P.chrysogenum pyrG1 mutant strains were used in transmutation experiments. P. Chrysogenum L2, a lysine auxotroph was used as a control. Spores of P.chrysogenum were collected from home bases of power medium after holding grown for 5 yearss at 28Â °C. Two plasmids pDL1 and pDL7 which differed in selectable marker and size of DNA part homologous to a im were selected for break of lys2 by a individual crossing over. pDL1 includes ble ( phleomycin opposition ) cistron while pDL7 contains pyrG cistron as a selectable marker. Out of 495 transformants tested, 2 lysine auxotrophs ringers ( TD7-88 and TD7-115 ) were obtained. Both were unable to turn in Czapek medium supplemented with ?-aminoadipic acid while P.chrysogenum L2 ( command strain ) grew. These consequences proved that lys2 cistron is disrupted in TD7-88 and TD7-115 strains. Two plasmids pDL2 and pDL10 were constructed for break of lys2 cistron by dual recombination. Out of 964 transformants tested, merely one lysine auxotroph ( TD10-195 ) was obtained which was unable to turn in ?-aminoadipic acid supplemented Czapek medium. Transformants TD10-195 and TD7-115 were more stable without any reversion rate as compared to TD7-88 with really low degree of stableness. Although the growing of transformants were slower than parental strain in defined medium incorporating 4.0 Mm lys ine, the penicillin degrees were double from those observed in parental strain at 96, 120, and 144 H and threefold higher at 168 H. 2. Penicillin Production by Fungi turning on nutrient merchandises. Many fungous species widely used as commercial starting motors such as P.nalgiovense, P.chrysogenum, P. Verrucosum, P.griseofulvum and P.roqueforti were used to analyse the production of penicillin while turning on nutrient merchandises and presence of penicillin biosynthetic cistrons in Fungi of genus Penicillium. The synthesis of toxic compounds might besides be secreted to nutrient merchandises. All the strains were screened utilizing bio-assaies in both solid and liquid medium with Micrococcus luteus ATCC 9341 as a trial strain to observe penicillin production. Antibacterial activity was found in P.chrysogenum, P.griseofulvum NRRl 2300 and P.nalgiovense. ?-lactamase signifier Bacillus Cereus UL1 was used to prove whether the antibacterial activity was due to penicillin or other substance. Result indicate that antibacterial activity can be attributed to ?-lactam antibiotic penicillin. Agitation of liquid submerged civilizations of P.griseofulvam was carried out to corroborate peni cillin production which proved that P.griseofulvam strain NRRL 2300 had highest production degree. Southern smudge analysis was used to analyze the presence of penicillin biosynthetic cistrons. The presence of penicillin cistron bunch in P.griseofulvum proved that the antibacterial activity observed is due to penicillin. P.griseofulvum which is a possible beginning of penicillin in nutrient merchandises can be often isolated from maize, barley, wheat, flour etc. In instance of P. Verrucosum, the antibacterial activity observed was due to either patulin or penicilic acid as it contains merely one cistron of penicillin cistron bunch. Both patulin or penicilic acid are secondary metabolites produced by different strains of Fungi. In order to obtain safe and high quality nutrient merchandises, antibiotic and toxin production by nutrient micro-organisms should be analysed and studied in item. It besides helps to bring forth modified strains in which the synthesis of toxic compounds can b e eliminated without losing their food-ripening and flavorer belongingss. 3. Production of penicillin in methylotropic barm Hansenula polymorpha. -lactam antibiotics such as penicillin and Mefoxins are largest selling antibiotics against bacterial infections. Industrially, penicillin and Mefoxins are produced by filiform Fungis Penicillium.chrysogenum and Acremonium chrysogenum severally. The chief purpose was to present penicillin biogenesis tract into yeast Hansenula polymorpha as it is more various, easy to manage and cultivate with superior agitation belongingss as compared to filiform Fungis. In penicillin tract, peptide synthetase ?-L-cysteinyl-D-valine synthetase signifiers tripeptide ACV. It is converted into isopenicillin N ( IPN ) by enzyme isopenicillin N synthase ( IPNS ) . The pcbC cistron which encodes IPNS was cloned in H.polymorpha intoxicant oxidase booster in pHIPX4 and integrated at PAOX venue in H.polymorpha genome. A strain ( IPNS 4.2 ) incorporating pcbC look cassette was cultivated at 37Â °C on methyl alcohol medium to bring on PAOX. Wild type H.polymorpha serves as control strain. Aliquots were taken a t regular clip intervals to analyze IPNS protein. Western smudges prepared utilizing rough infusions of H.polymorpha and P.chrysogenum revealed that strain IPNS 4.2 produces an ?-IPNS specific protein. IPNS was produced at all growing temperatures in strain IPNS 4.2. In stationary growing stage, comparatively low IPNS protein degrees were observed in cells grown at 37Â °C. It was assumed that hapless or slow folding of protein at high temperature can be an intrinsic factor. However, IPNS protein was to the full stable and its degree was significantly enhanced at 25Â °C if compared to its production at 37Â °C and 30Â °C.The sum is comparable to highest penicillin bring forthing strains of P. You read "Microbiological routes for the production" in category "Essay examples"Chrysogenum. Results indicate that penicillin production in heterologus barm was merely successful at decreased growing temperatures. As yeast genome does non encode non – ribosomal peptide synthetases suc h as ACVs, the following measure will be to infix functionally active ACVS in heterologus host in order to present full penicillin biogenesis tract in H.polymorpha. 4. Penicillin production in surface civilizations of P.notatum. Two-liter Erlrnmeyer flasks incorporating czapek-Dox medium were inoculated with P.notatum and incubated at 25Â °C. It was tested for antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus in alimentary stock by ordinary dilution methods. The pH of the medium fell from 6.5 to 3.0-4.0 and remained low throughout. Neutralized samples showed high antibacterial activity and batches runing from 10 to 100 liters were extracted with amyl ethanoate at pH 2. It was assumed that penicillin in these civilizations existed in non-extractable signifier. The pellicles were thin, without furrows or spores, and liquid with swoon xanthous touch. The antibacterial activity was extractible at pH 2 with organic dissolvers when the medium was supplemented with yeast infusion, brain-heart extract. In brown sugar medium ( dark brown sugar, 2 per cent ; NaNO3, 0.35 ; MgSO4.7 H20, 0.05 ; KCI, 0.05, KH2PO4, 0.15 ; FeSO4.7H20, 0.015 ) growing is more rapid and abundant accompanied by intense xanthous pigmentatio n ( chrysogenin ) as compared to czapek-Dox medium. The sourness falls in early phases from pH 5.5 to 4.5 and so rises to 8.0. Penicillin started roll uping on 5th twenty-four hours with upper limit on the eleventh to the 13th twenty-four hours. Maximum penicillin activity appeared after maximal growing was attained. All the sugar was consumed before maximal penicillin was accumulated. 5. Penicillin production in submersed civilizations of P.notatum. Experiments with submersed civilizations were conducted on machines agitating at rate of 60 to 90rpm, with maximal growing observed over a period of 6 to 10 yearss at 25Â °C. Brown sugar medium was distributed in 80-ml measures in 250-ml Erlenmeyer flasks and inoculated with a spore suspension of P.notatum, strain 832. The flasks were incubated at 25Â °C on a shaking machine. Growth commenced on the 2nd twenty-four hours with maximal growing appeared as little unit of ammunition pellets of mycelium. Penicillin started roll uping on 3rd or 4th twenty-four hours and reached its maximal value ( 20 to 30 oxford units per milliliter ) on 7th or 8th twenty-four hours. Organic fraction in brown sugar is responsible for penicillin-promoting capacity. Zinc besides had a catalyzing consequence. The shingle or submersed civilization technique provides better aeration as compared to come up civilization. By turning P.notatum strains in shake civilization, variable factors of diffusion and pell icle formation are eliminated, while growing and metabolic procedures are accelerated. Care of an equal O supply is indispensable in the penicillin production in submersed civilizations of P.notatum. 6. Aculeacin A Acylase as an industrial biocatalyst for production of penicillin Aculeacin A Acylase ( AuAAC ) from Actinoplanes utahensis NRRL 12052 catalyzes hydrolyses of acyl medieties of fungicidal antibiotics. As AuAAC was similar to ? -lactam acylase, it was investigated whether AuAAC would act as new ? -lactam acylase. An engineered aac cistron was made and cloned into look vector pEM4. The cistron was amplified by PCR utilizing chromosomal Deoxyribonucleic acid from A. utahensis NRRL 12052. Primers were designed harmonizing to the DNA sequence of aac cistron. Purified PCR merchandises were digested with XbaI and EcoRI endonuclease and cloned into pEM4 vector. The ensuing plasmid was so introduced in S.lividans 1326. The AuAAC output was 21-fold higher in recombinant strain produced by S. Lividans ( pEAAC ) as compared to A.utahensis. Its pureness was determined by Na dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel cataphoresis. The thermic stableness was studied by pre-incubating AAC for 20 min at different temperatures. It was stable up to 50Â °C and so reduced at higher temperature. It was determined that purified recombinant AuAAC is able to hydrolyse penicillin V. The kinetic parametric quantities for hydrolyses of different natural ?-lactam antibiotics were determined to analyze hydrolytic specificity of recombinant AuAAC. The pure recombinant enzyme was incubated with increasing concentrations of penicillins ( V, K, F, dihydroF, and G ) in 100 mM K phosphate buffer, pH 8.0 at 45Â °C for 15 min in 100 Â µl. AuAAC shows the same substrate specificity if compared to penicillin V acylase on natural penicillins. Penicillin K was best substrate for which AuAAC shows highest biomolecular changeless value of 34.79 mM-1 s-1. Result suggest that AuAAC from A.utahensis should be considered as new subfamily of ?-lactam acylases and it should besides be considered as an industrial biocatalyst for production of man-made penicillins. Mentions 1. Finch, R. G. , Greenwood, D. , Norrby, S. R. A ; Whitley, R. J. ( 2003 ) . Antibiotic and Chemotherapy. Anti-infective agents and their usage in therapy. ( 8th ed. ) . New York: Churchill Livingstone. 2. Hutter, R. , Leisinger, T. , Nuesch, J. A ; Wehrli, W. ( 1978 ) . Antibiotics and Other Secondary Metabolites: Biosynthesis and Production. New York: Academic Press. 3. Flynn, E. H. ( 1972 ) . Cephalosporins and Penicillins.Chemistry and Biology. New York: Academic Press. 4. Casqueiro, J. , Gutierrez, S. , Banuelos, O. , Hijarrubia, M. J. A ; Martin, J. F. ( 1999 ) . Gene Targeting in Penicillium chrysogenum: Break of the lys 2 Gene Leads to Penicillin Overproduction. Journal of Bacteriology, 181 ( 4 ) , 1181-1188. 5. Laich, F. , Fierro, F. A ; Martin, J. F. ( 2002 ) . Production of Penicillin by Fungi Turning on Food Merchandises: Designation of a complete Penicillin Gene Cluster in Penicillium griseofulvum and a Truncated Cluster in Penicillium verrucosum. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 68 ( 3 ) , 1211-1219. 6. Gidijala, L. , Bovenberg R. , Klaassen, P. , Van der Klei, I. J. , Veenhuis, M. A ; Kiel, J.A. ( 2008 ) . Production of functionally active Penicillium chrysogenum isopenicillin N synthase in the barm Hansenula polymorpha. BMC Biotechnology,29 ( 8 ) , 1472-6750. 7. Torres-Bacete, J. , Hormigo, D. , Stuart, M. , Arroyo, M. , Torres, P. , Castillon, M.P. , et Al. ( 2007 ) . Newly Discovered Penicillin Acylase Activity of Aculeacin A Acylase from Actinoplanes utahensis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology,73 ( 16 ) 5378-5381. 8. Sprote, P. , Brakhage, A. A. A ; Hynes, M. J. ( 2009 ) . Contribution of Peroxisomes to Penicillin Biosynthesis in Aspergillus nidulans. Eukaryotic Cell, 8 ( 3 ) , 421-423. 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Effects Of A Change In Price Of Coffee †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Effects Of A Change In Price Of Coffee. Answer: Introduction The indifference curve can be defined as the curve showing all the combinations of two commodities, which give the same level of utility or satisfaction to the consumer, in a two-commodity economy. The budget line, on the other hand, shows the consumers ability to buy different combinations of two commodities. The equilibrium occurs at the point, where the indifference curve of a consumer touches his budget line. In this essay, using this approach the effects of a change in price of coffee, on the quantity demanded of coffee and pastries, by a particular consumer, is tried to be analyzed, assuming that both the commodities are normal goods (Rader, 2014). Effects of increase in the price of coffee In the given problem, it is assumed that the consumer spends his entire income on the consumption of coffee and pastries, both of which are normal goods, which mean with the increase in price the demand for these commodities decrease and vice versa. When there is a considerable increase in the price of coffee, the effect of the increase in price on the quantity demanded of both the goods can be divided into two parts, the income effect and the substitution effect (Rios, McConnell Brue, 2013). The income effect shows the change in consumption of the consumer due to an increase in the price of a commodity, which decreases the purchasing power of the consumer. On the other hand the substitution effect shows the change in the consumption of the commodities that happens due to the change in the relative prices of the two commodities following the hike in the price of one commodity. In the concerned case, coffee being a normal commodity, with the increase in the price of coffee, the relative price of coffee also increases and the overall purchasing power of the consumer also decreases, the effects of which are shown as follows: Figure 1: Effects of increase in the price of coffee (Source: As created by the author) As can be seen from the above diagram, the initial equilibrium of the consumer is at E0, with the indifference curve Ic1 being tangent on the budget line AB0. With the considerable increase in price of coffee, price of pastries remaining unchanged, the budget line rotates to AB1. With the help of the compensated budget line (the dotted line), it can be seen that, assuming that the purchasing power of the consumer is kept at the initial level, with the increase in the price of coffee, the demand for coffee declines from Qc to Qc (Hall Lieberman, 2012). This is the substitution effect, which is negative as coffee is a normal good. Now, given the original income showing a lesser purchasing power, the equilibrium shifts to E2, with the new IC being Ic1 and the quantity of coffee decreasing further to Qc. This is the negative income effect. Thus, the entire price effect shows the decrease in demand for coffee from Qc to Qc. The change in the demand for pastries, however, depends on the m agnitude of the change in purchasing power and the income and substitution effects. It may decrease, remain the same or may even increase to a little extent if the demand for coffee is substantially decreased (Dixon et al., 2012). References Dixon, P. B., Bowles, S., Kendrick, D., Taylor, L., Roberts, M. (2012).Notes andproblems in microeconomic theory (Vol. 15). Elsevier. Hall, R. E., Lieberman, M. (2012). Microeconomics: Principles and applications. Cengage Learning. Rader, T. (2014). Theory of microeconomics. Academic Press. Rios, M. C., McConnell, C. R., Brue, S. L. (2013). Economics: Principles, problems, and policies. McGraw-Hill.

The Jungle Analysis Essay Example For Students

The Jungle Analysis Essay The Jungle is written about a man, a woman, and family movin to Chicago from Lithuania, dicovering it is difficult to survive, let alone get a job. The first major theme of the jungle socialism as a remedy for the evils of capitalism. Every event is chosen to show the failures of capitalism. As members of jurgiss family dies. It demonstrates the effects of capitalism on the working class as a whole. The second major theme is the immigrant experience. This shThe Jungle is written about a man, a woman, and family movin to Chicago from Lithuania, dicovering it is difficult to survive, let alone get a job. We will write a custom essay on The Jungle Analysis specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The first major theme of the jungle socialism as a remedy for the evils of capitalism. Every event is chosen to show the failures of capitalism. As members of jurgiss family dies. It demonstrates the effects of capitalism on the working class as a whole. The second major theme is the immigrant experience. This shows that all immigrants coming to look for high wages, and happyiness for everyone is not the case. Not everyone gets jobs, especially Immigrants. The Author is trying to say that capitalism is inhuman, destructive, unjust, brutal, and violent.The jungle is a very intuitive show of how immigrants looking for golden streets and expensive mansions was destroyed by the effects of Capitalism.ows that all immigrants coming to look for high wages, and happyiness for everyone is not the case. Not everyone gets jobs, especially Immigrants. The Author is trying to say that capitalism is inhuman, destructive, unjust, brutal, and violent.The jungle is a very intuitive show of how immigrants looking for golden streets and expensive mansions was destroyed by the effects of Capitalism. The Jungle by Upton Sinclair

Elements of Marketing Mix

Elements of Marketing Mix The marketing mix is comprised of four core elements that enhance marketing of items and services. Without these elements, marketing would be irrelevant and that is why every business has to observe them. The elements include product, place, price and promotion. This paper will therefore focus on these four elements and their impact towards the growth of a business. In addition, the paper will include an example that elaborates the application of the four elements in real life situation.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Elements of Marketing Mix specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Product is the first element of marketing mix, which refers to an item or a service. The features of an item are its strongholds because they lead the customer into buying it. This means that the items will literary market themselves. For instance, fresh vegetables attract customers while they are still on the shelf and thus, the attributes of an item must make the customer feel that his/her needs will be satisfied. Kotler Keller (2009) suggest that the features can be enhanced by improving the appearance of the item by focusing on areas like packaging, warranties and design. In marketing, what matters most is to capture the attention of the customer. Buyers prefer items that are packed in appealing designs. Moreover, items with warranties on them attract customers because it makes them feel safe when making the purchase because they are assured of getting back their money in case the item turns to be faulty. The second element in marketing mix is place, and it entails identifying the appropriate channel of reaching the potential customer. A business entity must then familiarize itself with the areas that are most frequented by customers. For instance, a florist is most likely to get customers if he/she is situated next to a hospital or a mortuary. This suggests that marketing is greatly influenced by place and thus, an enterprise must position itself in a strategic position. In other words, Kumar (2007) explains that the marketer must identify the areas where his/her services are most needed. This requires one to scan the environment, identify a loophole, and proceed to fill it. For instance, the services of a veterinary cannot be needed in an urban center because there is hardly any form of farming in the cities and thus it would be advisable for such a professional to market him/herself in the rural areas. Price is the third element and it refers to the cost of the item/service. Seller and his /her position in the distribution chain determine the cost of an item. In production chains, there are manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers. Each of these parties engages in the trade for a profit. Retailers sell at a higher price because they have to cater for the expenses incurred by wholesalers.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your firs t paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, wholesalers trade at subsidized rates because they do not spend much to obtain the finished product. According to Bennett (2009), a businessperson should also remember to compare his/her prices with those of the competitors. If the items are of the same quality, then he/she should reduce his/her prices slightly as this will give him/her a cutting edge in the market. In the end, the business will be making less profit while increasing the sale volume, which amounts to higher returns. Promotion is the last element of marketing mix, and it involves informing the customers about a given item/service. In this approach, the customer is notified about the item/service through commercials that are aired on TV, radio, internet, newspapers and billboards among others. When choosing the medium of advertising it is important to analyze the possibilities of reaching the targeted audience. The option with the highest probability s hould thus be employed to increase chances of success. In this regard, Sony is the best example for a company that utilizes the elements of marketing mix. The company manufactures electronics such as TV sets, Hifi systems and computer accessories such as flash disks. The company has been able to market itself by improving the features of its products. For instance, the current Hifi systems can support flash disks besides being compatible with digital compact disks. The company is not the sole manufacturer of the above-mentioned products and thus, it reviews its prices to leverage itself with its competitors. This company advertises its items through the internet because it is the cheapest medium. However, the company still airs some of its commercials via TV adverts and billboards. In conclusion, an item must have the appropriate qualities because customers are induced by these attributes. The features must be aligned with the needs of the customers otherwise; the item will remain i n the shelves. The item should consider the interests of the buyers. If the buyers want comfort then the item should include this attribute in the item. The marketer should also concentrate on the people who are most likely to require his/her item/service. Targeting the wrong people would be a waste of time and resources. Every buyer is usually interested in a unique item that is less costly and thus, a business entity should address the issue of price. However, the price slash must be considerate for the business to remain stable. Marketers should consider advertising their items/services through the appropriate media. They should specifically take advantage of the Internet because it interconnects the world in real time. References Bennett, G. A. (2009). The Big Book of Marketing. New York: McGraw-Hill.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Elements of Marketing Mix specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Kotler, P. Keller, K . L. (2009). Marketing Management (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Kumar, S. R. (2007). Marketing and Branding: The Indian Scenario. New Delhi Dorling: Kindersly.

Consolidated Electric Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Consolidated Electric - Case Study Example Contrastingly, for the other 20,000 separate line items, the company will buy discount minimums that match the various inventory sizes. In the warehouses managed by Consolidated Electric, for instance, Cedar Rapids, Des Moines, Davenport, and Sioux City should ensure the fixed ratios are part of the wholesaler concept. In the same view, actual rations should be calculated using the clerk posts transactions because determining on-hand inventory balance will result to $1 million of pre-tax profits. Integration of the vendor-managed inventory (VMI) systems is equally part of increasing customer stocks as the company expands on operations and warehouse layout (Ravindran, 2007). Calculation of quantities and reorder points, thus, are ordered in terms of low-cost items in order to control profitability that are targets for earn-turn rations. Product lines should equally reflect what Joe Henry called a balance between constant values and supplies in the four warehouses as seen in the diagram below: The above inventory control system above will enable the company to meet customer-service and cost objectives in various ways worth noting. First, entering of electric data interchange is part of refining database connectivity because it generates earn-turn ratios that help wholesalers in different parts of the country. It means when the Cardex system is infused in the Consolidated Electric’s case, inventory formulas will help in the sale of product line items that ensure translations happen smoothly. Second, there is also the quantification of assets and label inventory using the QR Code as noted in the second diagram to keep the total count of stock (Jaber, 2009). Warehouse operations also deserve automations and controls that are efficient within the system to assist in the calculation of electrical equipment and goods for enhancing customer

RA #6 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

RA #6 - Assignment Example Several possible solutions, including technical issues, computer failure, sick relatives, and acceptance of the mistake were presented. We agreed on accepting our mistake and seek for additional time. The other creative problem solving technique in a group set-up is the excursion technique. It is very useful for triggering group members to develop innovative thought patterns for formulate strategies. This method takes place in four five basic stages. In the first step, the consultant asks members to go for an imaginary excursion and take note of what they see. The second step involves creating analogies to what they saw with the problem at hand. Thirdly, each of these group members has to try and develop a solution from the analogy they created with what was seen in step one. In the fourth step, the participants share their experiences of the excursion: what they saw, analogies created, and solution. The final stage is more or less like brainstorming where the most suitable solution is

Boston Tea Party Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Boston Tea Party - Research Paper Example Boston Tea Party indeed happened to be one of the first significant acts of defiance against the British. It did put to test the sovereignty of the British Parliament and the King. It put to question the British right of ruling a people who were not only losing touch with Britain but were also getting increasingly sovereign and independent. The Boston Tea Party marked the colonies frustration over representation and laid down the foundation of the future notion of self governance. To put it simply, in the history of the United States, the Boston Tea Party signified the spirit of change, radical action and an idea of governance accruing moral bearing from the actual will of the people. It would be really interesting to delve into the political genesis of the Boston Tea Party. For the British the victory in the French and the India wars did indeed turn out to be utterly costly (Volo 238). Thereby the British monarchy and the Parliament did look to taxing the American colonies as a possible way out of bearing with the high costs incurred during the French and the Indian wars in 1763 (Volo 238). Besides the Britain was also looking forwards to consolidate its hold over the American colonies that had become increasingly distant and independent as the home nation remained embroiled in wars. The political ineptitude of Britain culminating in a series of taxes like the Stamp Act of 1765, the Townsend Acts of 1767 and the hurting and painful Boston Massacre immensely innervated and agitated the colonies and badly impacted their relationship with Britain, leading to much mutual resentment and disappointment (Volo110). Eventually it was the British ploy to tax the tea consu med by the colonies that laid down the foundations of the Boston Tea Party. The colonists refused to pay many of the levies imposed by the British Parliament, denying abiding by the taxes that were envisioned and imposed by a political institution in which they were denied any

Discussing the relationship between Strategic Management and Leader

Discussing the relationship between Strategic Management and Leader In this assignment its going to be discussed about the strategic management and leadership. It will be analyzed and the relationship between the strategic management and leadership. The organization which will use to describe the link between strategic management and leadership is ACCOMMODATION TIMES and it will discuss about the impact of strategic management and leadership on the organization and how they work. Management and leadership Understanding the relationship between strategic management and leadership Leadership involves the quality  to lead whereas the strategic management involves the way the goals of the organisation are achieved. The leadership works towards the achievement and implementation of the strategic goals in a way that it moves ahead in a smooth manner. The strategies are been made by the leadership of the organisation. This involves the management and the way the targets of the organisation are been achieved with the strategies that are been laid down. The link between the strategic management and leadership are remotely related to each other , the way the leadership is working on the achieving the goals that are set is the work of the leadership of the organisation to deal with it. This involves the exact functioning of the organisation. According to Neil Ritson Strategic management is the organised development of the resources of the functional areas which are financial , manufacturing , marketing , technological , manpower etc, in the pursuit of its objective it is the use of all the entity resources, It is a set of policies adopted by senior management, which guides the scope and direction of the entity. It takes into account the environment in which the company operates. (Neil Riston, 2008) LEADERSHIP: In Audrina words a leadership is when you guide the organization into a result that your group has agreed upon. You and the rest of the team have a defined understanding to determine the ability and to articulate visions and goals. Leadership is said seen just as a facet of successful manager. It usually works on precedence for strategic planning and management and long-term success. (Audrina Majella, 2008) Leadership is a skill which a person develop through the experience for example in Accommodation Times general assistant after having experience become the Genaral Manager they never appoint a Genral Manager straight away because leadership you learn through experience and strategic management through courses and trainings. LINK BETWEEN STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP: A leadership is the bridge between strategic management and their target .its because of a leadership that organization gets their desired tasks and targets Management is responsible for people and resources in a unit according to rules or values that have already been set while the leadership set a direction to the people in group. It can understand the link between strategic management and leadership by this example that good leadership and effective management are always the of success in any organization so both of these are the skills which going side by side without management a good leadership can only satisfy for the time being not in a long term same as an effective management is nothing without the good leadership. When great leadership is jointed with effective management, you are able to set a direction and be able to allocate the resources the way you want. Not only that, you will achieve your goal the way you have thought and the way you want to achieve. Analyse the impact of management and leadership styles on strategic decisions The decisions made by the management  are a unique way of implementing it, so the decisions that are made by the, management impact the organisation. So it is essential for the strategic decisions to be made perfect in a way that it works out for the organisation as a success. At times if the Leadership of the organisation fails to make a perfect decision in the perfect manner then the strategies are falling apart and the targets of the goals that are been set are not been achieved .So the leadership is the core thing that has to formalise the strategies in such a way that the impact of the decisions that are been made in a success. The leadership should make such strategies in such a manner that the organisations various departments re able to achieve and work on it with efficiency. Evaluating how leadership styles can be adapted to different situations. Origin of strategic management is based on :- The traditional perspectives which involves the  Economic entity The resource based view of the firm its  a collection of resources skills and abilities The stake holder approach  a network of relationships among the firm and its stakeholders Strategic Management:- Strategic Management is a is a process to establish priorities on what we have to achieve in the coming future for the organisation and the Leadership of the organisation is responsible for not only making it but implementing it to success Strategic management  forces us to make a choice on what has to be done and what is not to be done, whereas the leadership is the one which decides on the same. Leadership helps to bring the entire organisation together for the achieving the targets. Whereas the strategic management helps to put the entire organisation in a single game plan so that they move ahead together in a same direction rather than helter shelter situation. So this helps in the execution of the game plan effectively which will be done with the effective leadership qualities of the management of the organisation We need to put down the guideline where the resources has to be allocated so that the allocated resources work out effectively in a success formula Nature of strategic management involves  Ã‚   A global perspective for the survival of the businesses One of the vital tools is an e-commerce The other important thing in it is the natural environment, which deals basically with the strategic issue. The nature of the leadership involves bringing the perspective to the The 3 stage process of it involves Formulation of strategy Implementation And evaluation Sm achives organisational success My Organisation of findings is Accommodation Times Accommodation Times was started by Mr. Murari Chaturvedi in the early eighties. It is the first real estate newspaper of India. The Idea behind this was a simple idea by the founder of this newspaper to start a fully dedicated newspaper for real estate in India. During this there were a lot of problems been faced by him, which saw Mr.Chaturrvedi to even give up his job of the prestigious Times of India Group Of newspaper. At present, Accommodation Times is one of the largest newspapers of Real estate newspaper in India. It covers various aspects of real estate, giving various dimensions to real estate in India. It is broadly been centralised from Mumbai but the subscription reaches all across the Indian State. It is been run by a very short but a dedicated staff involving the family members Mr. Murari Chaturvedi.It has been recognised by the former President of India Dr.Abdul Kalam for the work towards the Indian Real Estate Industry. It is published every two weeks. The current executive editor is Dr. Sanjay Chaturvedi; the chief executive officer is Ajay Chaturvedi The Goal of the Workers in the organisation is to bring about a proper knowledge of the Real estate to the uneducated Indian Real estate market. The organisation runs a series of development lectures and educates the industry people about the various factors that need to be looked into and learnt in the industry. There are various courses even been run by the organisation to teach the young guns of India about the vast scope and proper knowledge of Real Estate. The basic Idea of the Organisation if to make Industry recognition from the government of India and simultaneously highlighting  and educating the masses about the real estate industry. The core focus of the organisation still remains on the News of the real estate but during the years the focus has been shifted from  time to time. Listing education of the industry, proper way of the channelizing the objectives and the functioning of the real estate sector of the industry. The Objectives of the organisation now also involves education, strengthening of the realtors, clean and efficient news. The conclusion The organisation is successfully implementing the strategies and the leadership is effectively working and polishing the complete team and is constantly working on the improvement of the organisation. The leadership has been constantly on the high standards. The leadership has been an example for the complete industry. The strategies which were been laid down during the inception of the Newspaper has been achieved succesfully.The leadership and the strategies laid down have worked efficiently and worked together in tandem. The skills that the leadership has brought about the success Task 2 2.1 Management and leadership theories in the organization Accommodation Times Management Leadership Concepts in the organisation:- In accommodation Times the Management and the leadership is focusing on the continueos expansion of the newspaper through the various means of the channel of the advertisemenst and anlso by improving the better standard of the the news that is imparted to the people or say the reader of the newspaper. The core focus of the management and the leadership is to focus on a time and time again on the spread of the knowhow of the real estate and giving more knowhow to the common man , so that there are more and more number of people that are in the habit of reading of the newspaper . The increase in the base of the readership only gives a brand value but the core finances that are being brought to the Newspaper are through the channel of the advertisements. As the advertisements cover the cost of the printing and even get the maximum profit to the newspaper. So following this strategy the newspaper has a core team which is designed under the leadership of the CEO Mr. Ajay Chaturvedi so that the hurdles are cleared very easily for the team. In this way the team gets a direct support of the higher management for their assistance so that whenever they look out for an answer or a help they get it through the Higher Management in the form of the CEO Mr. Ajay Chaturvedi. The Editorial team is focusing on bringing on those issues to light that are of a unique important to the common man who is reading the newspaper And on the other hand the Editor in chief is focusing on maintaining the dignity and maintaining the values of the organisation , so that never any values are being compromised for the sake of any monetary gains and any of the ethics that the newspaper has been following since the last 3 decades , that should not be compromised that is the main focus of the Editor in chief. In this was the organisation is having its concepts clear to each and every department and that brings about to the very good balance between the work of the Management the leadership theory of the organisation Most common theories used in the organization The three theories that are followed are:- Transformational leadership Transformational leadership is a leadership approach that is defined as leadership that creates valuable and positive change in the organisation. Transformational leadership is a type of  leadership style  that leads to positive changes in those who follow. Transformational leaders are generally energetic, enthusiastic and passionate. Not only are these leaders concerned and involved in the process; they are also focused on helping every member of the group succeed as well. (About .com phycology) In the organisation Accommodation Times the leadership plays a very vital role in the changes that the newspaper adopts and has seen over the last few decades since the the inception of the newspaper. The higher management has a good amount of the influence on the way to the others who are working in the organisation. So we can see such kind of leadership in the organisation Charismatic Leadership The Charismatic Leader gathers followers through dint of personality and charm, rather than any form of external power or authority. Charismatic leadership is leadership based on the leaders ability to communicate and behave in ways that reach followers on a basic, emotional way, to inspire and motivate. We often speak of some sports and political leaders as charismatic (or not) an example being John F. Kennedy. (From Wikipedia) In accommodation Times the leaders or say the higher Management are very charismatic in the way they get or approach to the lower management or even to their clients as well, so when it is looked in that the way the finances re been brought in the form of the advertisement are totally based on the charisma of the higher management and the leaders, if said to be precise. Emotional Intelligence:- Emotional intelligence is the aptitude, volume,  skill. A self-perceived ability to identify, assesses, and controls the emotions of oneself, of others, and of groups. Different models have been proposed for the definition of Emotional intelligence and there is disagreement about how the term should be used. Despite these disagreements, which are often highly technical, the ability and trait models (but not the mixed models) enjoy support in the literature and have successful applications (From Wikipedia) The organisation accommodation times also have a very subtle but effective approach on this theory as they have been involved in that true reporting and have been efficiently involved in the spread of the know how about the industry and the standards of the industry that are existing that they give to the common people to read and get aware about.in this way it is very evident that leadership Is following the emotional path or approach very subtle as they never succumb under the pressure of the newspaper advertises. 2.2 Leadership Strategy for sustenance of the Organisational guidelines:- There are very simple but effective approach that the organisation is following and the way it is been handled in the last few decades speaks for itself. The organisation follows the concept of spreading the knowhow to the common man in the city and the country, that what is the real estate and how it is effecting and how it is functioning in the country and the city. The organisational also follows the approach of true reporting and follows the guidelines to implement it so that it is never been compromised over in the functioning of the newspaper. The team works on the guidelines that are been laid down by the Editor in Chief since the inception of the newspaper. Assistance Theory:- The organisation is having a very good and open theory when it comes to approaching the different in the organisation. The CEO even function with the lower level of the management and even the lower level of the management has an environment in which they can approach to the various different departments in the organisation. SO at any time when anyone who is requiring any assistance then they get it directly. This maintains the way of working in a very efficient manner, as there is assistance for each and every one in the organisation whenever it is required and necessary. Team Leader Behaviour Approach in Accommodation Times:- The team leader of the organisation are very efficient and able to lead and represent the team and the industry as well, so there is a sense of relax environment in the organisation that whenever there is a assistance or the way the work is functioning in the organisation. So the way in which the behaviour approach in the organisation goes about to read it is very obvious that the team leaders in the organisation is going about to the way of their work or the guidelines that the various are following.Comapritavely it is very good leading environment in the organisation. Management Role Transactional Theory in Accommodation Times:- The role of the management in the Accommodation times is a very vital role been played in the organisation so that the smooth functioning of the newspaper is being carried on from time to time. The management plays a very vital role in pushing the lower level of the organisation for the work in the office. Also the Management pushes the financial generating in the organisation so that the newspaper is going on the path of success from time to time. Task 3 3.1 current leadership requirements Overview Current leadership requirements in Accommodation Times:- The organisation is focusing on spreading its wings and the subscription on the overseas market so that they can get a very good amount of the overseas advertises as well. As the patronage leadership is and has been focusing on the city and maximum to the country only and this has the middle level management, as the middle level is all set to expand its wings to the international level. The middle or to say the newer generation has a few different guideline that are to be followed in the expansion of the newspaper to the overseas market ,as there has to be certain values and the ethics that has to be compromised. So the editor and the editor in chief are very adamant to follow the change and the expansion with the compromising of the ethics and the values. So the team which is working on the expansion. Generic challenges are the challenges that the organisation is facing in the generic way, to learn this out we have to study the whole way of functioning of the organisation or say various types of challenges that arise. Few examples that can be told are like:- 1) Competition 2). Quality 3). Innovation 4). Retaining competent resources 5). Training 6). Reducing cost 7). System improvement 8). Increase sales, productivity 9). Customer Satisfaction 10).Value addition 11).Adapting changes A Virtual Organisation (VO) is a dynamic pool of distributed resources shared in a trusted way by a dynamic set of users belonging to one or more organizations.   In which major processes are outsourced to partners. Best it can be defined is a company is one whose members are geographically apart, usually working by computer  e-mail  and groupware  while appearing to others to be a single, unified organization with a real physical location. Examples of few of the virtual organisation are Facebook Google Microsoft Wikileaks These are a few of the virtual organisation that are existing in the present times and are very famous as well. This type of organisation has given a very diverse effect in the current global environment. Diversity as a characteristic of the organisation goes further: one is only satisfied when not only the numbers are right, but also when everyones talents, input and assets are used, as a result of which the relevant organisation can serve a wider group of customers and become a stimulating workplace for all employees. Power theories there is a situation of established people and outsiders (as far as this organisation is concerned) the dominant or self-evident will be the norm (this how we do it here) and the minority is often described in negative terms as a deviation from the dominant, so forcing the minority party often to prove that his or her way of working is possibly different but need not necessarily be worse. Cultural differences Differences in culture often manifest themselves in the way in which people deal with instructions, arrangements, conflicts and leadership; all aspects which impact upon how smoothly a multicultural organisation runs. Apart from cultural differences  as such there are dimensions which are connected to a class background, or sex of course, which also impacts upon how people experience the interaction between them. Identity theories Everyone has  different identities:- A sexual identity (man/woman), an ethnic identity (black/ white/immigrant) but also for example a job identity. At which moment is one being addressed in which identity and foremost who determines this. Diverse workforce The reasons for promoting diversity are pretty obvious: to contribute to a fairer society, improve the quality of staff by reaching untapped pools of talent and to increase consumer confidence in a workforce that reflects the clients that it provides services. Some of these differences are relatively unproblematic such as eye colour and hairiness, while others cause us to consider carefully how we treat certain groups. Examples of the latter include education, culture, gender, language, socio-economic backgrounds, religion and sexuality, as well as ethnicity. A useful concept of diversity will therefore incorporate these differences. Ethnicity is certainly one of the most important types of diversity, both because of how closely people identify themselves with their ethnic origin and because of the large disparities in areas such as education and employment between different ethnicities. However, things are moving in the right direction. This is what Accommodation Times has noted down as in the form adjustments for a few employees:- If you have dyslexia and need extra time during assessments. If you use sign language we will make an interpreter available for your interview If you use a wheelchair or have limited mobility we can ensure your interview takes place in an accessible room If you have back pain and need to stretch we can provide breaks in an interview. The need for a diverse workforce is part and parcel of the human resource requirements associated with successful continuous quality improvement initiatives. A diverse workforce in which the contributions of each member-faculty, staff, or administrator, are respected and valued is an institutions most important asset. Such a workforce is able to synthesize a variety of perspectives and processes for the successful completion of tasks. Employers can build on established individual and group strengths and develop policies that create an environment to get the best out of each individual. Interim leadership:- Usually an Organisation leader retains the leadership until his or her successor takes over; however, in some situations this is not possible. This may be because the leader passes away or because a leader is forced to resign due to controversy or scandal before a convention can be organized because a leader is forced to recontest his or her leadership or because a new department is incorporated from existing organisations caucuses. Sometimes an outgoing leader decides to resign immediately in order to ensure organisational unity. This is because he or she has accepted an appointment or been elected to another position, or they have lost their seat in a general election and are unable or unwilling to attempt to contest. When a sudden vacancy occurs an interim leader is appointed by the organisations caucus or the chief executive. Changes in reporting and control Changes to the Reporting on Controls at an Organization have evolved over the years for many reasons including: changes in financial reporting to user organizations; changes in the control environments of service organizations; changes in the technology available to the service organizations and the requests of user organizations therein 4.1 Development and leadership skills:- Leadership development is one of those things that are often awfully hard to define but you know when you see it, and you definitely know when its missing.   Indeed Leadership is one of those areas about which a huge amount is said while at the same time leaving big questions hanging in the air unanswered. Essential Skills of Leadership development in the organisations Good Communication: Effective communication is a two-way process sending the right message, that is also being correctly received and understood by the other person/s. Being Articulate: Being articulate can be wonderful until you find out that society uses two languages. A second vocabulary has to do with symbolic meaning and not exact meaning. It is called words for words sake. For those who are never taught this mental illness can bring about a collapse of language as the mind enters the realm of confusion and fear Think On Your Feet:-the people in the organisation need to follow this line of thinking so as to that there is a smooth functioning and a clear understanding of the various views that are and will be raised on time to time basis. Humour: Humour is by far the most significant activity of the human brain.Humor brings insight and tolerance. Irony brings a deeper and less friendly understanding Flexibility. So this has to be understood by the leadership of the organisation so as to be very chirpy as well Integrity: Adherence  to  moral  and  ethical  principles in the organisation means that there is integrity in the organisation. Compelling Presence:-there should be a very effective and a good way of presence of the leadership and the various departments in the organisations, so as to maintain the smooth functioning of the organisation. That can only be achieved by the means of compelling presence 4.2 Report on the usefulness of the methods used to plan the development of leadership skills: Conclusion: Role of strategic management is much bigger than leadership and it can be said that leadership is involved to get the strategic goal defined on the behalf of company owner or share holder. Leadership is developed through the experience and development activities. A smart leader should have the ability to identify the current and future needs of the leadership.

Monogamy and Marriage: The Battle Between Biology and the Buck Essay

Monogamy and Marriage: The Battle Between Biology and the Buck Monogamy does not imply fidelity (Fisher 63), and marriage does not imply monogamy. To understand this surprising statement, the word "monogamy" must be interpreted in a biological sense, and marriage in a legal sense. In other words, monogamy is just two people in a relationship for their mutual benefit, perhaps involving an extended family and children. Monogamy does not necessarily mean a life-long relationship, but it can, nor does it exclude occasional philandering. It is monogamy as long as two people maintain a pair-bond for their mutual benefit, no matter how short the relationship lasts. Marriage, on the other hand, legally recognizes many different mating systems from monogamy to polygamy. The association between monogamy, fidelity, and marriage has been the concern of religion over the years. It is said that Saint Augustine, who lived from A.D. 354 to 430, spread the Christian idea that adultery is a moral transgression for both men and women. Even the Ten Commandments forbid adultery. This attitude toward adultery, Fisher says, has long influenced the Western view of monogamy (84). In other words, religion has tried to moralize monogamy by injecting the belief that adultery is sinful and monogamy is permanent. Therefore, monogamy in a biological sense, contrary to the religious sense, does not necessarily connote sexual faithfulness of the partners, nor is it necessarily long term. Actually monogamy had developed long before religion became interested. According to Fisher’s estimate, nearly every human society has been monogamous to some degree (69), and she claims that human beings have a biologically natural preference for mo... ...cause the word â€Å"love† will never disappear from the dictionary. Works Cited Cable-McCarthy, Benjamin. "All We Ask for Are the Same Rights and Responsibilities Granted Heterosexual Couples." {National Press Club} 13 Apr. 1998. Fisher, Helen E. {Anatomy of Love}. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1992. Horn, Wade. "Marriage and Government." {The World & I} 1 Nov. 1997. Longley, Clifford. "Sacred and Profane: What Exactly Do We Mean by a Family?" {The Daily Telegraph} 30 Jan. 1998. Lowry, Suzanne. "The Reinvention of Marriage." {Independence} 6 Oct. 1998. Quale, G. Robina. {A History of Marriage Systems}. Westport: Greenwood Press, Inc, 1988. Shaffern, Robert W. "Christianity and the Rise of the Nuclear Family." {America} 7 May 1994. Williams, Armstrong. "Fading Ring of Wedding Bells." {The Washington Times} 18 July 1999.

Tamil Eelam Issue in Indian Politics

————————————————- Politics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the political magazine, see  The Politic. For other uses, see  Politics (disambiguation). Politics  (from  Greek  politikos  Ã¢â‚¬Å"of, for, or relating to citizens†) is the  art  or  science  of influencing people on a civic, or individual level, when there are more than 2 people involved. Modern political discourse focuses on democracy and the relationship between people and politics. It is thought of as the way we â€Å"choose government officials and make decisions about public policy†. [1] * | ———————————————— [edit]Etymology European Parliament The word  politics  comes from the  Greek  word   (politika), modeled on  Aristotle's â€Å"affairs of the city†, the name of his book on governing and governments, which was rendered in English in the mid-15th century as Latinized â€Å"Polettiques†. [2]  Thus it became â€Å"politics† in  Middle English  c. 1520s (see the  Concise Oxford Dictionary). The singular  politic  first attested in English 1430 and comes from  Middle French  politique, in turn from  Latin  politicus,[3]  which is the  latinisation  of the Greek politikos), meaning amongst others â€Å"of, for, or relating to citizens†, â€Å"civil†, â€Å"civic†, â€Å"belonging to the state†,[4]  in turn from (polites), â€Å"citizen†[5]  and that from (polis), â€Å"city†. [6] ————————————————- [edit]History The history of politics is reflected in the origin and development, and economics of the institutions of  go vernment. [edit]The state Main article:  State (polity) Sun Tzu The origin of the  state  is to be found in the development of the  art of warfare.Historically speaking, all political communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. [7] Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China and Japan, were considered divine. Of the institutions that ruled states, that ofkingship  stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the â€Å"divine right of kings†. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the longest-lasting political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria[8]  to the 21st Century AD British Monarchy.Kingship becomes an institution through heredity. The king often, even in  absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a  Council  without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors, and others outside the monarchy negotiated for p ower,  constitutional monarchies  emerged, which may be considered the germ of  constitutional government. [citation needed]  Long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by:[citation needed] 1.Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. 2. Preserving the traditions of the social order. 3. Being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. 4. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than a single individual such as the king. The greatest of the king's subordinates, the  earls,  archdukes  and  dukes  in England and Scotland, the  dukes  and  counts  in the Continent, always sat as a right on the Council. A conqueror wages war upon the vanquished for vengeance or for plunder but an established kingdom exacts  tribute.One of the functions of the Council is to keep the coffers of the king full. Another is the satisfaction of  military service  a nd the establishment of  lordships  by the king to satisfy the task of collecting taxes and soldiers. [9] [edit]The state and property Property  is the right vested on the individual or a group of people to enjoy the benefits of an object be it material or intellectual. A right is a power enforced by public trust. Sometimes it happens that the exercise of a right is opposed to public trust.Nevertheless, a right is really an institution brought around by public trust, past, present or future. The growth of knowledge is the key to the history of property as an institution. The more man becomes knowledgeable of an object be it physical or intellectual, the more it is appropriated. The appearance of the State brought about the final stage in the evolution of property from wildlife to husbandry. In the presence of the State, man can hold landed property. The State began granting lordships and ended up conferring property and with it came  inheritance.With landed property came ren t and in the exchange of goods, profit, so that in modern times, the â€Å"lord of the land† of long ago becomes the landlord. If it is wrongly assumed that the value of land is always the same, then there is of course no evolution of property whatever. However, the price of land goes up with every increase in population benefitting the landlord. The landlordism of large land owners has been the most rewarded of all political services. In industry, the position of the landlord is less important but in towns which have grown out of an industry, the fortunate landlord has reaped an enormous profit.Towards the latter part of the Middle Ages in Europe, both the State – the State would use the instrument of  confiscation  for the first time to satisfy a debt – and the Church – the Church succeeded in acquiring immense quantities of land – were allied against the village community to displace the small landlord and they were successful to the extent that today, the village has become the ideal of the  individualist, a place in which every man â€Å"does what he wills with his own. † The State has been the most important factor in the evolution of the institution of property be it public or private. 10] [edit]The state and the justice system As a primarily military institution, the State is concerned with the  allegiance  of its subjects viewing disloyalty and  espionage  as well as other sorts of  conspiracies  as detrimental to its national security. Thus arises the law of  treason. Criminal acts in general, breaking the peace and treason make up the whole, or at least part of  criminal law  enforced by the State as distinguished from  the law enforced by private individuals or by the state on behalf of private individuals.State justice has taken the place of clan, feudal, merchant and ecclesiastical justice due to its strength, skill and simplicity. One very striking evidence of the superiority of the royal courts over the feudal and popular courts in the matter of official skill is the fact that, until comparatively late in history, the royal courts alone kept written records of their proceedings. The  trial by jury  was adopted by the Royal Courts, securing it's popularity and making it a bulwark of liberty.By the time of the  Protestant Reformation, with the separation of Church and State, in the most progressive countries, the State succeeded in dealing with the business of administering justice. [11] [edit]The state The making of laws was unknown to primitive societies. That most persistent of all patriarchal societies, the  Jewish, retains to a certain extent its tribal law in the  Gentile  cities of the West. This tribal law is the rudimentary idea of law as it presented itself to people in the patriarchal stage of society, it was  custom  or  observance  sanctioned by the approval and practice of ancestors. citation needed] The state of affairs wh ich existed in the 10th century, when every town had its own laws and nations like France, Germany, Spain and other countries had no national law until the end of the 18th century, was brought to an end by three great agencies that helped to create the modern system of law and legislation:[citation needed] 1. Records:  From the early Middle Ages in Europe there come what are called folk-laws and they appear exactly at the time when the patriarchal is becoming the State.They are due almost universally to one cause: the desire of the king to know the custom of his subjects. These are not legislation in the sense of law-making but statements or declarations of custom. They are drawn from a knowledge of the custom of the people. Unwritten custom changes imperceptibly but not the written. It is always possible to point to the exact text and show what it says. Nevertheless, the written text can change by addition with every new edition. 2.Law Courts:  By taking some general rule which seemed to be common to all the communities and ignoring the differences, English common law was modeled after such a practice so that the law became common in all the districts of the kingdom. The reason why in the rest of Europe, there was no common law till centuries later is because the State in those countries did not get hold of the administration of justice when England did. One of the shrewdest moves by which the English judges pushed their plan of making a common law was by limiting the verdict of the jury in every ase toquestions of fact. At first the jury used to give answers both on law and fact; and being a purely local body, they followed local custom. A famous division came to pass: the province of the judge and the province of the jury. 3. Fictions:  Records and Law Courts were valuable in helping the people adapt to law-making but like Fictions, they were slow and imperfect. Though slowly, Fictions work because it is a well known fact that people will accept a cha nge in the form of a fiction while they would resist it to the end if the fact is out in the open.British parliament Finally there is the enactment of laws or legislation. When progress and development is rapid, the faster method of  political representation  is adopted. This method does not originate in primitive society but in the State need for money and its use of an assembly to raise the same. From the town assembly, a national assembly and the progress of commerce sprang  Parliament  all over Europe around the end of the 12th century but not entirely representative or homogeneous for the nobility and the clergy.The clergy had amassed a fortune in land, about one-fifth of all Christendom but at the time, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the Church was following a policy of isolation; they adopted the rule of  celibacy  and cut themselves from domestic life; they refused to plead in a secular court; they refused to pay taxes to the State on the grounds that they had a lready paid it to the  Pope. Since the main object of the king in holding a national assembly was to collect money, the Church could not be left out and so they came to Parliament.The Church did not like it but in most cases they had to come. [citation needed] The medieval Parliament was complete when it represented all the states in the realm: nobles, clergy, peasants and craftsmen but it was not a popular institution mainly because it meant  taxation. Only by the strongest pressure of the Crown were Parliaments maintained during the first century of their existence and the best proof of this assertion lies in the fact that in those countries where the Crown was weak, Parliament ceased to exist.The notion that parliaments were the result of a democratic movement cannot be supported by historical facts. Originally, the representative side of Parliament was solely concerned with money; representation in Parliament was a liability rather than a privilege. It is not uncommon that a n institution created for one purpose begins to serve another. People who were asked to contribute with large sums of money began to  petition. Pretty soon, sessions in Parliament would turn into bargaining tables, the king granting petitions in exchange for money.However, there were two kinds of petitions, one private and the other public and it was from this last that laws were adopted or  legislation  originated. The king as head of State could give orders to preserve territorial integrity but not until these royal enactments were combined with public petition that successful legislation ever took place. Even to the present day, this has always been the basis of all successful legislation: public custom is adopted and enforced by the State. citation needed] In the early days of political representation, the  majority  did not necessarily carry the day and there was very little need for contested  elections  but by the beginning of the 15th century, a seat in Parliam ent was something to be cherished. Historically speaking, the dogma of the equality of man is the result of the adoption of the purely practical machinery of the majority but the adoption of the majority principle is also responsible for another institution of modern times: the  party system.The party system is an elaborate piece of machinery that pits at least two political candidates against each other for the vote of an electorate; its advantage being equal representation interesting a large number of people in politics; it provides effective criticism of the government in power and it affords an outlet for the ambition of a large number of wealthy and educated people guaranteeing a consistent policy in government. citation needed] These three institutions: political representation, majority rule and the party system are the basic components of modern political machinery; they are applicable to both central and local governments and are becoming by their adaptability ends in th emselves rather than a machinery to achieve some purpose. [12] [edit]The state and the executive system The administration is one of the most difficult aspects of government.In the enactment and enforcement of laws, the victory of the State is complete but not so in regards to administration the reason being that it is easy to see the advantage of the enactment and enforcement of laws but not the administration of domestic, religious and business affairs which should be kept to a minimum by government. [citation needed] The  German Chancellery(Bundeskanzleramt) in  Berlin Originally, the state was a military institution. For many years, it was just a territory ruled by a king who was surrounded by a small elite group of warriors and court officials and it was basically rule by force over a larger mass of people.Slowly, however, the people gained political representation for none can really be said to be a member of the State without the right of having a voice in the direction o f policy making. One of the basic functions of the State in regards to administration is maintaining peace and internal order; it has no other excuse for interfering in the lives of its citizens. To maintain law and order the State develops means ofcommunication. Historically, the â€Å"king's highway† was laid down and maintained for the convenience of the royal armies not as an incentive to  commerce.In almost all countries, the State maintains the control of the means of communication and special freedoms such as those delineated in the  First Amendment to the United States Constitution  are rather limited. The State's original function of maintaining law and order within its borders gave rise to  police  administration which is a branch of the dispensation of  Justice  but on its preventive side, police jurisdiction has a special character of its own, which distinguishes it from ordinary judicial work.In thecurfew, the State shows early in history the import ance of preventing disorder. In early days, next to maintaining law and order, the State was concerned with the raising of  revenue. It was then useful to the State to establish a  standard  of  weights and measures  so that value could be generally accepted and finally the State acquired a  monopoly  of  coinage. The regulation of labor by the State as one of its functions dates from the 15th century, when  the Black Plague  killed around half of the European population. citation needed] The invariable policy of the State has always been to break down all intermediate authorities and to deal directly with the individual. This was the policy until  Adam Smith's  The Wealth of Nations  was published promoting a strong public reaction against State interference. By its own action, the State raised the issue of the poor or the State relief of the  indigent. The State, of course, did not create poverty but by destroying the chief agencies which dealt with t s uch as the village, the church and the  guilds, it practically assumed full responsibility for the poor without exercising any power over it. The Great Poor Law Report of 1834 showed that  communism  was widespread in the rural areas of England. In newly developed countries such as the  colonies  of the  British Empire, the State has refused to take responsibility for the poor and the relief of poverty, although the poor classes lean heavily towards State socialism. citation needed] Taking into account the arguably significant powers of the State, it is only natural that in times of great crisis such as an overwhelming calamity the people should invoke general State aid. [citation needed] Political representation has helped to shape State administration. When the voice of the individual can be heard, the danger of arbitrary interference by the State is greatly reduced. To that extent is the increase of State activity popular.There are no hard and fast rules to limit Stat e administration but it is a fallacy to believe that the State is the nation and what the State does is necessarily for the good of the nation. In the first place, even in modern times, the State and the nation are never identical. Even where â€Å"universal suffrage† prevails, the fact remains that an extension of State administration means an increased interference of some by others, limiting freedom of action. Even if it is admitted that State and nation are one and the same, it is sometimes difficult to admit that State administration is necessarily good.Finally, the modern indiscriminate advocacy of State administration conceals the fallacy that State officials must necessarily prove more effective in their action than  private enterprise. Herein lies the basic difference between  Public  and  Business Administration; the first deals with the  public weal  while the second deals basically in  profit  but both require a great deal of  education  and  ethical conduct  to avoid the mishaps inherent in the relationship not only relating to  business  and  labour  but also the State and the people administrating its  government. 13] [edit]The varieties of political experience The swearing of the oath of ratification of the treaty of Munster in 1648  (1648) by  Gerard ter Borch. According to Aristotle, States are classified into  monarchies,  aristocracies,  timocracies,  democracies,  oligarchies, and  tyrannies. Due to an increase in knowledge of the history of politics, this classification has been abandoned. Generally speaking, no form of government could be considered the absolute best, as it would have to be the perfect form under all circumstances, for all people and in all ways.As an institution created by the human nature togovern society, it is vulnerable to  abuse by people for their own gain, no matter what form of government a state utillises, thus posing that there is no ‘best' form of government. All States are varieties of a single type, the sovereign State. All the  Great Powers  of the modern world rule on the principle of  sovereignty. Sovereign power may be vested on an individual as in an  autocratic government  or it may be vested on a group as in a constitutional government.Constitutions  are written documents that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of government. Although a Constitution is a written document, there is also an unwritten Constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written by the Legislative branch of government; this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of government that is most appropriate. Nevertheless, the written constitution is essential.England did set the fashion of written constitutions during the  Civil War  but after the  Restoration  abandoned them to be taken up later by the  American Colonies  after their  ema ncipation  and then  France  after the  Revolution  and the rest of Europe including the European colonies. [citation needed] There are two forms of government, one a strong central government as in France and the other a local government such as the ancient divisions in England that is comparatively weaker but less bureaucratic.These two forms helped to shape the  federal government, first in Switzerland, then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany in 1870 and in the 20th century,  Australia. The Federal States introduced the new principle of agreement or  contract. Compared to a  federation, a  confederation's singular weakness is that it lacks  judicial power. [citation needed]  In the  American Civil War, the contention of the Confederate States that a State could  secede  from the Union was untenable because of the power enjoyed by the Federal government in the executive, legislative and judiciary branches. citation needed] According to professor  A. V. Dicey  in  An Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, the essential features of a federal constitution are: a) A written supreme constitution in order to prevent disputes between the jurisdictions of the Federal and State authorities; b) A distribution of power between the Federal and State governments and c) A Supreme Court vested with the power to interpret the Constitution and enforce the law of the land remaining independent of both the executive and legislative branches. 14] [edit]Political party Main article:  political party A  political party  is a  political organization  that typically seeks to attain and maintain political power within  government, usually by participating in  electoral campaigns, educational outreach or protest actions. Parties often espouse an expressed  ideology  or vision bolstered by a written  platform  with specific goals, forming a  coalition  among disparate interests . [citation needed] [edit]World politics The  United Nations  building in  New York CityThe 20th century witnessed the outcome of two world wars and not only the rise and fall of the  Third Reich  but also the rise and fall of  communism. The development of the  Atomic bomb  gave the United States a more rapid end to its conflict in Japan in  World War II. Later, the development of the  Hydrogen bombbecame the ultimate weapon of mass destruction. The  United Nations  has served as a forum for peace in a world threatened by nuclear war. â€Å"The invention of nuclear and space weapons has made war unacceptable as an instrument for achieving political ends. [15]  Although an all-out final nuclear holocaust is out of the question for man, â€Å"nuclear blackmail† comes into question not only on the issue of world peace but also on the issue of national sovereignty. [16]  On a Sunday in 1962, the world stood still at the brink of nuclear war during th e October  Cuban missile crisis  from the implementation of  U. S. vs  U. S. S. R. nuclear blackmail policy. ————————————————- [edit]As an academic disciplinePolitical science, the study of politics, examines the acquisition and application of  power. [17]  Political scientist  Harold Lasswell  defined politics as â€Å"who gets what, when, and how†. [18]  Related areas of study include  political philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public behaviour,  political economy, which attempts to develop understandings of the relationships between politics and the economy and the governance of the two, and  public administration, which examines the practices of governance. citation needed]  The philosopher  Charles Blattberg, who has defined politics as â€Å"responding to conflict with dialogue,† offers an acco unt which distinguishes political philosophies from political ideologies. [19] The first academic chair devoted to politics in the United States was the chair of history and political science at  Columbia University, first occupied by Prussian emigre  Francis Lieber  in 1857. [20] ————————————————- [edit]SpectraPolitical views differ on average across nations. A recreation of the Inglehart–Welzel Cultural Map of the World based on the  World Values Survey. Main article:  Political spectrum Several different  political spectrums  have been proposed. [edit]Left-right politics Main article:  Left–right politics Recently in history, political analysts and politicians divide politics into  left wing  and  right wing  politics, often also using the idea of center politics as a middle path of policy between the right and left.This classificat ion is comparatively recent (it was not used by  Aristotle  or  Hobbes, for instance), and dates from theFrench Revolution  era, when those members of the  National Assembly  who supported the  republic, the common people and a  secular society  sat on the left and supporters of the  monarchy,  aristocratic  privilege and the Church sat on the right. [21] The meanings behind the labels have become more complicated over the years. A particularly influential event was the publication of the  Communist Manifesto  by  Karl Marx  and  Frederick Engels  in 1848.The  Manifesto  suggested a course of action for a  proletarian  revolution to overthrow thebourgeois  society and abolish private property, in the belief that this would lead to a  classless  and  stateless  society. [citation needed] The meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies considerably between different countries and at different times, but generally speaking, it can be said that the right wing often values  tradition  and  social stratification  while the left wing often values  reform  and  egalitarianism, with the center seeking a balance between the two such as with  social democracy  or  regulated capitalism. 22] According to  Norberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality, while the Right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian. [23] Some ideologies, notably  Christian Democracy, claim to combine left and right wing politics; according to Geoffrey K.Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, â€Å"In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles. â€Å"[24]  Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide include  Fascist  Terza Posizioneeconomic politics in Italy,  Gaullism  in France,  Peronism  in Argentina, and  National Action Politics  in Mexico. [citation needed] [edit]Authoritarian-libertarian politics Authoritarianism  and  libertarianism  refer to the amount of individual  freedom  each person possesses in that society relative to the state.One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where â€Å"individual  rights  and goals are subjugated to group goals, expectations and conformities†,[25]  while libertarians generally oppose the  state  and hold theindividual  as  sovereign. In their purest form, libertarians are  anarchists, who argue for the total abolition of the state, of  Political parties  and of  other political entities, while the purest authoritarians are, theoretically,  totalitarians  who support state control over all aspects of  society. citation nee ded] For instance,  classical liberalism  (also known as  laissez-faire  liberalism,[26]  or, in much of the world, simply  liberalism) is a doctrine stressing individual freedom and  limited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individual  property rights,  free markets,  natural rights, the protection of  civil liberties, constitutional limitation of government, and individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of  John Locke,  Adam Smith,  David Hume,  David Ricardo,  Voltaire,  Montesquieu  and others.According to the libertarian  Institute for Humane Studies, â€Å"the libertarian, or ‘classical liberal,' perspective is that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by ‘as much liberty as possible' and ‘as little government as necessary. ‘†[27]  For anarchist political philosopher  L. Susan Brown  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Liberalism and  anarchism   are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual  freedom  yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations. [28] ————————————————- [edit]Political corruption Main article:  Political corruption â€Å"| Unlimited power is apt to corrupt the minds of those who possess it. | †|   | —  William Pitt the Elder[29]| | Political corruption  is the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as  repression  of political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption.Neither are illegal acts by private persons or corporations not directly involved with the government. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties. [citation needed] Forms of corruption vary, but include  bribery,  extortion,  cronyism,  nepotism,  patronage,  graft, and  embezzlement. While corruption may facilitate  criminal enterprise  such as  drug trafficking,  money laundering, and  trafficking, it is not restricted to these activities. citation needed]  The activities that constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, certain political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another. In some cases, government officials have broad or poorly defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. [citation needed] Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually. [30]  A state of unrestrained